INTEGRATION OF GIS-PCA-AHP METHODS FOR SOIL QUALITY INDEX ASSESSMENT IN NAGARI NANGGALO, KOTO XI TARUSAN SUBDISTRICT, PESISIR SELATAN REGENCY, INDONESIA
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Published
Oct 6, 2025
Muhammad Aknil Sefano
Juniarti Juniarti Gusnidar Gusnidar
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4510-5765
Juniarti Juniarti Gusnidar Gusnidar
Abstract
The determination of the Soil Quality Index (SQI) was a valuable activity for land resource planning and management. This study aimed to evaluate the soil quality index in Nagari Nanggalo, Koto XI Tarusan Subdistrict, Pesisir Selatan Regency, Indonesia, by integrating the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) method with the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) and visualizing the results using Geographic Information Systems (GIS). Based on the PCA analysis, six principal components were identified and weighted using AHP, namely pH (17.40%), OC (34.67%), BS (13.53%), BD (18.50%), K-exch (5.34%), and HC (10.56%). The SQI analysis results showed that 87.90% (324.48 ha) of the area was classified as poor and 12.10% (44.67 ha) as moderate. This study indicated that the area had generally poor soil quality. However, it should be noted that proper soil management, as well as soil and water conservation measures, needed to be considered to improve the current condition and enhance the soil’s carrying capacity. The soil quality index map developed in this study served as a useful tool for decision-making in land management.
How to Cite
Sefano, M. A., Juniarti, J., & Gusnidar, G. (2025). INTEGRATION OF GIS-PCA-AHP METHODS FOR SOIL QUALITY INDEX ASSESSMENT IN NAGARI NANGGALO, KOTO XI TARUSAN SUBDISTRICT, PESISIR SELATAN REGENCY, INDONESIA. International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process, 17(3). https://doi.org/10.13033/ijahp.v17i3.1357
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Keywords
AHP, PCA, GIS, Soil quality index
References
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Alam, M. S., Akter, S., Shemul, S., Chowdhury, T. R., & Ara, S. (2022). Assessing the quality and heavy metal contamination of soil in tea gardens around Magurchara gas blowout in Bangladesh using multivariate and soil quality index methods. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances, 7, 100127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazadv.2022.100127
Andrews, S.S., Karlen, D.L., Mitchell, J.P., (2002). A comparison of soil quality indexing methods for vegetable production systems in Northern California. Agriulture, Ecosystems, & Environment, 90, 25–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(01)00174-8
Bayrakli, B., Dengiz, O., & Kars, N. (2023). Soil quality assessment based on MCDA–GIS hybrid approach for sustainable hazelnut farming under humid ecosystem environment. Rendiconti Lincei. Scienze Fisiche e Naturali, 34(3), 921–940. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12210-023-01179-9
Bel-Lahbib, S., Ibno Namr, K., Rerhou, B., Mosseddaq, F., El Bourhrami, B., & Moughli, L. (2023). Assessment of soil quality by modeling soil quality index and mapping soil parameters using IDW interpolation in Moroccan semi-arid. Modeling Earth Systems and Environment, 9(4), 4135–4153. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-023-01718-1
Central Agency of Statistics (CAS). (2022). Kabupaten Pesisir Selatan dalam angka 2022 [Pesisir Selatan Regency in figures]. Publication number: 13020.2201, volume 8. https://pesselkab.bps.go.id/id/publication/2022/02/25/fca1a08849f51c06b2a241c0/kabup aten-pesisir-selatan-dalam-angka-2022.html
Çelik, Ö., & Sürücü, A. (2024). Soil quality assessment in the Araban plain across various land use types. Journal of King Saud University-Science, 36(9), 103385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2024.103385
Chaudhry, H., Vasava, H. B., Chen, S., Saurette, D., Beri, A., Gillespie, A., & Biswas, A. (2024). Evaluating the soil quality index using three methods to assess soil fertility. Sensors, 24(3), 864. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24030864
Chu, T. C., & Le, T. H. P. (2022). Evaluating and selecting agricultural insurance packages through an AHP-based fuzzy TOPSIS method. Soft Computing, 26, 7339–7354 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00500-022-06964-6
Demir, Z. (2024). Assessment of soil quality index for onion cultivated soils in a semiarid agricultural ecosystem. Eurasian Soil Science, 57(6), 1057–1071. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1064229323603074
Dengiz, O., & Demirağ Turan, İ. (2023). Soil quality assessment for desertification based on multi-indicators with the best-worst method in a semi-arid ecosystem. Journal of Arid Land, 15(7), 779–796. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40333-023-0020-9
Everest, T., & Gür, E. (2022). A GIS-based land evaluation model for peach cultivation by using AHP: a case study in NW Turkey. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 194(241). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-022-09898-6
Faloye, O. T., Ajayi, A. E., Kamchoom, V., Akintola, O. A., & Oguntunde, P. G. (2024). Evaluating impacts of biochar and inorganic fertilizer applications on soil quality and maize yield using principal component analysis. Agronomy, 14(8), 1761. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14081761
Fiantis, D. (2017). Morfologi dan klasifikasi tanah [Soil morphology and classification]. Lembaga Pengembangan Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi Universitas Andalas. http://repo.unand.ac.id/4976/1/MORFOLOGI%20DAN%20%20%20KLASIFIKASI%20TANAH.pdf
Geospatial Information Agency (GIA). (2023). Data Peta Penggunaan Lahan Nagari Nanggalo Kecamatan Koto XI Tarusan Kabupaten Pesisir Selatan tahun 2023. [Land use map data for Nagari Nanggalo, Koto XI Tarusan District, Pesisir Selatan Regency in 2023]. https://www.big.go.id/content/layanan/unduh-peta-nkri.
Jalhoum, M. E., Abdellatif, M. A., Mohamed, E. S., Kucher, D. E., & Shokr, M. (2024). Multivariate analysis and GIS approaches for modeling and mapping soil quality and land suitability in arid zones. Heliyon, 10(5). https://www.cell.com/heliyon/fulltext/S2405-8440(24)03608-9
Kahsay, A., Haile, M., Gebresamuel, G., Mohammed, M., & Okolo, C. C. (2023). Assessing land use type impacts on soil quality: Application of multivariate statistical and expert opinion-followed indicator screening approaches. Catena, 231, 107351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2023.107351
Kaya, N. S., Özkan, B., Dengiz, O., & Turan, İ. D. (2022). Digital mapping and spatial variability of soil quality ındex for desertification in the Akarçay Basin under the semi-arid terrestrial ecosystem using neutrosophic fuzzy-AHP approach. Natural Hazards, 112(3), 2101–2132. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-022-05258-2
Lenka, N. K., Meena, B. P., Lal, R., Khandagle, A., Lenka, S., & Shirale, A. O. (2022). Comparing four indexing approaches to define soil quality in an intensively cropped region of Northern India. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 10, 865473. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.865473
Marion, L. F., Schneider, R., Cherubin, M. R., Colares, G. S., Wiesel, P. G., da Costa, A. B., & Lobo, E. A. (2022). Development of a soil quality index to evaluate agricultural cropping systems in southern Brazil. Soil and Tillage Research, 218, 105293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2021.105293
Martín-Sanz, J. P., de Santiago-Martín, A., Valverde-Asenjo, I., Quintana-Nieto, J. R., González-Huecas, C., & López-Lafuente, A. L. (2022). Comparison of soil quality indexes calculated by network and principal component analysis for carbonated soils under different uses. Ecological Indicators, 143, 109374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2022.109374
Missaoui, R., Ncibi, K., Abdelkarim, B., Bouajila, A., Choura, A., Hamdi, M., & Hamed, Y. (2023). Assessment of hydrogeochemical characteristics of groundwater: link of AHP and PCA methods using a GIS approach in a semi-arid region, Central Tunisia. Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration, 8(1), 99–114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41207-023-00345-7
Mausbach, M.J., & C.A. Seybold. 1998. Assessment of soil quality. In Lal, R. (Ed.) Soil quality and agricultural sustainability. Ann Arbor Press.
Ozsahin, E., & Ozdes, M. (2022). Agricultural land suitability assessment for agricultural productivity based on GIS modeling and multi-criteria decision analysis: the case of Tekirdağ province. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 194(41). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-09663-1
Pacci, S., Kaya, N. S., Turan, İ. D., Odabas, M. S., & Dengiz, O. (2022). Comparative approach for soil quality index based on spatial multi-criteria analysis and artificial neural network. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 15(1), 104. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-021-09343-x
Peris, M., Recatala, L., Mico, C., Sanchez, R., Sanchez, J., 2008. Increasing the knowledge of heavy metal contents and sources in agricultural soils of the European Mediterranean region. Water, Air, Soil Pollution, 192, 25–37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-008-9631-1
Ritung, S., Wahyunto, A. F., & Hidayat, H. (2007). Panduan evaluasi kesesuaian lahan dengan contoh peta arahan penggunaan lahan Kabupaten Aceh Barat. Balai Penelitian Tanah dan World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Bogor, Indonesia [Land suitability evaluation guide with example of land use direction map for West Aceh Regency. Soil Research Institute and World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Bogor, Indonesia], 45.
Saaty, T. L. (2008). Decision making with the analytic hierarchy process. International Journal of Services Sciences, 1(1), 83–98. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJSSCI.2008.017590
Sefano, M. A., Maira, L., Darfis, I., Yunanda, W. W., & Nursalam, F. (2023). Kajian aktivitas mikroorganisme tanah pada Rhizosfir Jagung (Zea mays L.) dengan pemberian pupuk organik pada Ultisol [Study of soil microorganism activity in the rhizosphere of corn (Zea mays L.) with the provision of organic fertilizer in Ultisols]. Journal of Top Agriculture, 1(1), 31–39. https://ejurnal.bangunharapanbangsa.id/index.php/JTA/article/view/74
Sefano, M. A., Juniarti, J., & Gusnidar, G. (2024). Land suitability evaluation for Okra (Abelmoschus Esculentus L.) in Nagari Nanggalo, Koto XI Tarusan District, Pesisir Selatan Regency, Indonesia using GIS-AHP technique. International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process, 16(2), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.13033/ijahp.v16i2.1246
Sefano, M. A. (2025). Pertanian berkelanjutan berbasis AHP dan Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis: Sebuah tinjauan kritis [Sustainable agriculture based on AHP and Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis: A critical review]. Journal Arunasita, 2(1), 21–34. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15315366
Singh, R., Majumder, C. B., & Vidyarthi, A. K. (2023). Assessing the impacts of industrial wastewater on the inland surface water quality: An application of analytic hierarchy process (AHP) model-based water quality index and GIS techniques. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 129, 103314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2022.103314
Soil Research Institute of Indonesia (SRII). (2023). Petunjuk teknis analisis kimia tanah, tanaman, dan air irigasi, dan pupuk [Technical guidelines for chemical analysis of soil, plants, irrigation water, and fertilizers]. Balai Pengujian Standar Instrumen Tanah dan Pupuk (BPSITP). Bogor [Soil and Fertilizer Instrument Standards Testing Center (BPSITP), Bogor}. https://bit.ly/JUKNISTANAHEDISIBARU
Vasu, D., Tiwary, P., & Chandran, P. (2024). A novel and comprehensive soil quality index integrating soil morphological, physical, chemical, and biological properties. Soil and Tillage Research, 244, 106246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2024.106246
Wakatsuki, T., & Rasyidin, A. (1992). Rates of weathering and soil formation. Geoderma, 52(3–4), 251–263. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7061(92)90040-E
Watson, G. P., Martin, N. F., Grant, Z. B., Batka, S. C., & Margenot, A. J. (2022). Soil lead distribution in Chicago, USA. Geoderma Regional, 28, e00480. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.GEODRS.2021.E00480
West Sumatra Province Water Resources Management Agency (WSPWRMA). (2023). Data hidrologi dan klimatologi pertanian Provinsi Sumatera Barat [Agricultural hydrology and climatology data for West Sumatra Province]. https://sdabk.sumbarprov.go.id/details/hujan.
Wollenhaupt, N. C., & Wolkowski, R. P. (1994). Grid soil sampling for precision and profit. Proceedings of the Integrated Crop Management Conference. Iowa State University, Digital Press. https://scholar.archive.org/work/ifmo3752avgblfz6vjhcanlqam
Abuzaid, A. S., Mazrou, Y. S., El Baroudy, A. A., Ding, Z., & Shokr, M. S. (2022). Multi-indicator and geospatial based approaches for assessing variation of land quality in arid agroecosystems. Sustainability, 14(10), 5840. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14105840
Alam, M. S., Akter, S., Shemul, S., Chowdhury, T. R., & Ara, S. (2022). Assessing the quality and heavy metal contamination of soil in tea gardens around Magurchara gas blowout in Bangladesh using multivariate and soil quality index methods. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances, 7, 100127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazadv.2022.100127
Andrews, S.S., Karlen, D.L., Mitchell, J.P., (2002). A comparison of soil quality indexing methods for vegetable production systems in Northern California. Agriulture, Ecosystems, & Environment, 90, 25–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(01)00174-8
Bayrakli, B., Dengiz, O., & Kars, N. (2023). Soil quality assessment based on MCDA–GIS hybrid approach for sustainable hazelnut farming under humid ecosystem environment. Rendiconti Lincei. Scienze Fisiche e Naturali, 34(3), 921–940. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12210-023-01179-9
Bel-Lahbib, S., Ibno Namr, K., Rerhou, B., Mosseddaq, F., El Bourhrami, B., & Moughli, L. (2023). Assessment of soil quality by modeling soil quality index and mapping soil parameters using IDW interpolation in Moroccan semi-arid. Modeling Earth Systems and Environment, 9(4), 4135–4153. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-023-01718-1
Central Agency of Statistics (CAS). (2022). Kabupaten Pesisir Selatan dalam angka 2022 [Pesisir Selatan Regency in figures]. Publication number: 13020.2201, volume 8. https://pesselkab.bps.go.id/id/publication/2022/02/25/fca1a08849f51c06b2a241c0/kabup aten-pesisir-selatan-dalam-angka-2022.html
Çelik, Ö., & Sürücü, A. (2024). Soil quality assessment in the Araban plain across various land use types. Journal of King Saud University-Science, 36(9), 103385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2024.103385
Chaudhry, H., Vasava, H. B., Chen, S., Saurette, D., Beri, A., Gillespie, A., & Biswas, A. (2024). Evaluating the soil quality index using three methods to assess soil fertility. Sensors, 24(3), 864. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24030864
Chu, T. C., & Le, T. H. P. (2022). Evaluating and selecting agricultural insurance packages through an AHP-based fuzzy TOPSIS method. Soft Computing, 26, 7339–7354 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00500-022-06964-6
Demir, Z. (2024). Assessment of soil quality index for onion cultivated soils in a semiarid agricultural ecosystem. Eurasian Soil Science, 57(6), 1057–1071. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1064229323603074
Dengiz, O., & Demirağ Turan, İ. (2023). Soil quality assessment for desertification based on multi-indicators with the best-worst method in a semi-arid ecosystem. Journal of Arid Land, 15(7), 779–796. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40333-023-0020-9
Everest, T., & Gür, E. (2022). A GIS-based land evaluation model for peach cultivation by using AHP: a case study in NW Turkey. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 194(241). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-022-09898-6
Faloye, O. T., Ajayi, A. E., Kamchoom, V., Akintola, O. A., & Oguntunde, P. G. (2024). Evaluating impacts of biochar and inorganic fertilizer applications on soil quality and maize yield using principal component analysis. Agronomy, 14(8), 1761. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14081761
Fiantis, D. (2017). Morfologi dan klasifikasi tanah [Soil morphology and classification]. Lembaga Pengembangan Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi Universitas Andalas. http://repo.unand.ac.id/4976/1/MORFOLOGI%20DAN%20%20%20KLASIFIKASI%20TANAH.pdf
Geospatial Information Agency (GIA). (2023). Data Peta Penggunaan Lahan Nagari Nanggalo Kecamatan Koto XI Tarusan Kabupaten Pesisir Selatan tahun 2023. [Land use map data for Nagari Nanggalo, Koto XI Tarusan District, Pesisir Selatan Regency in 2023]. https://www.big.go.id/content/layanan/unduh-peta-nkri.
Jalhoum, M. E., Abdellatif, M. A., Mohamed, E. S., Kucher, D. E., & Shokr, M. (2024). Multivariate analysis and GIS approaches for modeling and mapping soil quality and land suitability in arid zones. Heliyon, 10(5). https://www.cell.com/heliyon/fulltext/S2405-8440(24)03608-9
Kahsay, A., Haile, M., Gebresamuel, G., Mohammed, M., & Okolo, C. C. (2023). Assessing land use type impacts on soil quality: Application of multivariate statistical and expert opinion-followed indicator screening approaches. Catena, 231, 107351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2023.107351
Kaya, N. S., Özkan, B., Dengiz, O., & Turan, İ. D. (2022). Digital mapping and spatial variability of soil quality ındex for desertification in the Akarçay Basin under the semi-arid terrestrial ecosystem using neutrosophic fuzzy-AHP approach. Natural Hazards, 112(3), 2101–2132. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-022-05258-2
Lenka, N. K., Meena, B. P., Lal, R., Khandagle, A., Lenka, S., & Shirale, A. O. (2022). Comparing four indexing approaches to define soil quality in an intensively cropped region of Northern India. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 10, 865473. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.865473
Marion, L. F., Schneider, R., Cherubin, M. R., Colares, G. S., Wiesel, P. G., da Costa, A. B., & Lobo, E. A. (2022). Development of a soil quality index to evaluate agricultural cropping systems in southern Brazil. Soil and Tillage Research, 218, 105293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2021.105293
Martín-Sanz, J. P., de Santiago-Martín, A., Valverde-Asenjo, I., Quintana-Nieto, J. R., González-Huecas, C., & López-Lafuente, A. L. (2022). Comparison of soil quality indexes calculated by network and principal component analysis for carbonated soils under different uses. Ecological Indicators, 143, 109374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2022.109374
Missaoui, R., Ncibi, K., Abdelkarim, B., Bouajila, A., Choura, A., Hamdi, M., & Hamed, Y. (2023). Assessment of hydrogeochemical characteristics of groundwater: link of AHP and PCA methods using a GIS approach in a semi-arid region, Central Tunisia. Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration, 8(1), 99–114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41207-023-00345-7
Mausbach, M.J., & C.A. Seybold. 1998. Assessment of soil quality. In Lal, R. (Ed.) Soil quality and agricultural sustainability. Ann Arbor Press.
Ozsahin, E., & Ozdes, M. (2022). Agricultural land suitability assessment for agricultural productivity based on GIS modeling and multi-criteria decision analysis: the case of Tekirdağ province. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 194(41). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-09663-1
Pacci, S., Kaya, N. S., Turan, İ. D., Odabas, M. S., & Dengiz, O. (2022). Comparative approach for soil quality index based on spatial multi-criteria analysis and artificial neural network. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 15(1), 104. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-021-09343-x
Peris, M., Recatala, L., Mico, C., Sanchez, R., Sanchez, J., 2008. Increasing the knowledge of heavy metal contents and sources in agricultural soils of the European Mediterranean region. Water, Air, Soil Pollution, 192, 25–37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-008-9631-1
Ritung, S., Wahyunto, A. F., & Hidayat, H. (2007). Panduan evaluasi kesesuaian lahan dengan contoh peta arahan penggunaan lahan Kabupaten Aceh Barat. Balai Penelitian Tanah dan World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Bogor, Indonesia [Land suitability evaluation guide with example of land use direction map for West Aceh Regency. Soil Research Institute and World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Bogor, Indonesia], 45.
Saaty, T. L. (2008). Decision making with the analytic hierarchy process. International Journal of Services Sciences, 1(1), 83–98. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJSSCI.2008.017590
Sefano, M. A., Maira, L., Darfis, I., Yunanda, W. W., & Nursalam, F. (2023). Kajian aktivitas mikroorganisme tanah pada Rhizosfir Jagung (Zea mays L.) dengan pemberian pupuk organik pada Ultisol [Study of soil microorganism activity in the rhizosphere of corn (Zea mays L.) with the provision of organic fertilizer in Ultisols]. Journal of Top Agriculture, 1(1), 31–39. https://ejurnal.bangunharapanbangsa.id/index.php/JTA/article/view/74
Sefano, M. A., Juniarti, J., & Gusnidar, G. (2024). Land suitability evaluation for Okra (Abelmoschus Esculentus L.) in Nagari Nanggalo, Koto XI Tarusan District, Pesisir Selatan Regency, Indonesia using GIS-AHP technique. International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process, 16(2), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.13033/ijahp.v16i2.1246
Sefano, M. A. (2025). Pertanian berkelanjutan berbasis AHP dan Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis: Sebuah tinjauan kritis [Sustainable agriculture based on AHP and Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis: A critical review]. Journal Arunasita, 2(1), 21–34. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15315366
Singh, R., Majumder, C. B., & Vidyarthi, A. K. (2023). Assessing the impacts of industrial wastewater on the inland surface water quality: An application of analytic hierarchy process (AHP) model-based water quality index and GIS techniques. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 129, 103314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2022.103314
Soil Research Institute of Indonesia (SRII). (2023). Petunjuk teknis analisis kimia tanah, tanaman, dan air irigasi, dan pupuk [Technical guidelines for chemical analysis of soil, plants, irrigation water, and fertilizers]. Balai Pengujian Standar Instrumen Tanah dan Pupuk (BPSITP). Bogor [Soil and Fertilizer Instrument Standards Testing Center (BPSITP), Bogor}. https://bit.ly/JUKNISTANAHEDISIBARU
Vasu, D., Tiwary, P., & Chandran, P. (2024). A novel and comprehensive soil quality index integrating soil morphological, physical, chemical, and biological properties. Soil and Tillage Research, 244, 106246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2024.106246
Wakatsuki, T., & Rasyidin, A. (1992). Rates of weathering and soil formation. Geoderma, 52(3–4), 251–263. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7061(92)90040-E
Watson, G. P., Martin, N. F., Grant, Z. B., Batka, S. C., & Margenot, A. J. (2022). Soil lead distribution in Chicago, USA. Geoderma Regional, 28, e00480. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.GEODRS.2021.E00480
West Sumatra Province Water Resources Management Agency (WSPWRMA). (2023). Data hidrologi dan klimatologi pertanian Provinsi Sumatera Barat [Agricultural hydrology and climatology data for West Sumatra Province]. https://sdabk.sumbarprov.go.id/details/hujan.
Wollenhaupt, N. C., & Wolkowski, R. P. (1994). Grid soil sampling for precision and profit. Proceedings of the Integrated Crop Management Conference. Iowa State University, Digital Press. https://scholar.archive.org/work/ifmo3752avgblfz6vjhcanlqam
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